– Donn Devine, CG, CGI

Census schedules are often the first source consulted by the new family history enthusiast, once family sources and available vital records have been exhausted. For the last century or more, the censuses in most countries list every person by name and age, arranged in household groups, and usually giving the occupation, relationship to the household head (in the U.S., starting in 1880), and other valuable family information.

Extensive guidance on use of the U.S. census was provided by Dr. Roseann Hogan in three earlier "Research Cornerstones" columns, which also covered the early censuses (1790-1840) where only the household head was listed by name, and the number of people in the household was given in age brackets by sex, color, and status. (See also Linda Herrick Swisher's article "Sensible Use of the Census," in this issue, on page 10.)

Why, then would someone turn to a census substitute? Typically it would be because of the unavailability of a census: some are missing, such as the 1790 returns for several states; some were destroyed, such as most of the population schedules of the 1890 U.S. census. Census substitutes are also used to fill in between census years (which usually occur at 10-year intervals), or to provide information not included in a census.

In deciding how useful a record might be as a substitute or supplement for a census, the following questions should be considered. What was the original purpose of the record? How extensive or inclusive was the list intended to be? (The more inclusive and extensive the list, the more satisfactory it will be.) What groups of people and data about them should have been included, and does it actually appear? (Laws and regulations prescribed what should have been recorded, but compilers sometimes fell short, or occasionally went beyond the minimum requirements.) What groups and information were deliberately excluded (like age on tax assessment rolls), and so will not appear in the substitute? With these considerations in mind, almost any list of individuals made at the appropriate time may be useful as a census substitute. The following sources identify household heads, and can substitute for censuses that name no one else.

Tax Assessment Records
Tax assessment records are the most frequently used census substitute for the period during which the census recorded only household heads. In rural areas where farm ownership was the pattern, property assessment lists tend to include most household heads who would normally appear in the census population schedules. If the assessment roll includes assessments on individuals-poll or head taxes, for example-names may appear for adult male members of a household who would not be listed in the census. In the accompanying illustration, tenants of properties owned by a taxpayer are named, although they would be very difficult to find without some clue to the landlord's identity.

Tax Collection Records
Tax collection records are usually not quite as good as assessment lists because the non-taxpayers aren't listed.

Militia Enrollment Lists
Militia enrollment lists, which should include every free white male in a district who was at least 18 but not over 45, will list more males than appear as household heads in the census. Enrollment was mandatory, and local companies were primarily training organizations. The members were divided by lot into classes which could be drafted for active service in a sufficient number to meet assigned local quotas. Unlike today's voluntary militia service in the National Guard, militia enrollment provided for universal, though minimal, military training in each locality, and for the order of calling members for involuntary service to repel invasion or enforce laws. It was replaced by the Civil War draft and the World War I, and later Selective Service System, registration.

Birth Records
Birth records in some New England towns are arranged by family group, often listing children born elsewhere before the family moved to the town. Church records may also be arranged in similar fashion. A register called Status Animarum, "State of Souls," arranged by family group, was maintained in European Catholic churches, and showed for each person his or her age or birth date and receipt of sacraments, including baptism, confirmation, annual communion, and marriages and remarriages. When found in the United States, these registers are usually in ethnic parishes whose priests came from continental Europe, particularly Germany.

Voter Registration and Poll Lists
Voter registration and poll lists will contain many adult males, and since 1920 (earlier in some states), females. Local restrictions on voting will determine the inclusiveness of the list. Some jurisdictions had property or poll tax requirements. Slaves could not vote, nor could indentured servants or apprentices in some jurisdictions. Voting by fee blacks varied by state, even after the 14th and 15th Amendments guaranteed that right to all citizens. Native Americans living on reservations could not vote until granted citizenship in 1924.

Juror Lists
Juror lists are another source which may include large numbers of household heads who would be listed in the census. However, they usually represent a selection from the whole number of eligible persons, so would be less complete than militia enrollments or voter lists.

City Directories
There are no completely satisfactory substitutes for modern every-name census schedules, but there are many systems of records and databases that come close. Unfortunately, many of them, especially for the past half-century or so, are not readily accessible because of privacy or confidentiality concerns. Perhaps the most readily available substitutes in urban areas are city directories. Directories began to be published in larger cities before the mid-1800s and continued until shortly before World War II. They exist for most smaller cities from the late 1800s to the 1970s and 1980s, with expansion to cover much of the post-World War II suburban development. From the late 19th century, most include name and occupation of household head, name of wife, and separate listings for adult or working children beginning at about age 16 to 18. (See also Curt Witcher's article "Using Directories for Genealogical Research," in this issue, on page 30.)

Rural Directory Compilations
Rural coverage is more spotty. Some county and a few state-wide directory compilations will be found, and in the early 1900s the magazine Farm Journal compiled rural county directories by listing rural delivery and box holders of rural post offices (with asterisks for the large number who were also subscribers to the magazine).

Service Registration Records
The National Archives has Selective Service registration records for World War I (males from 18 to 45), held at the Archives' Atlanta Georgia branch, and for World War II (males from 18 to 60), but data from the latter about health, civilian earnings, court records, or prior military service will not be released.

Social Security Card Applications
Considerable census-type information appears on the Social Security card application (the original handwritten form, not as copied into the system's database), completed by applicants for a social security number. Copies can be obtained from Social Security under a Freedom of Information Act request, but only if proof of the cardholder's death is furnished with the request (and which may be obtainable, together with the Social Security number, from the Social Security Death Index, now widely available on CD-ROM disks).

State Driver License and Vehicle Registration Files
Finally, state driver license and vehicle registration files contain census-type information such as age and Social Security number, occupation, and residence. However, access to this information is becoming increasingly restricted because of its use by criminals in highly publicized "stalking" cases.

Considerations for Using a Census Substitute
1. What was its purpose?
2. How extensive and inclusive was its basis?
3. Who and what was supposed to be included?
4. Who and what was omitted?

First Name Last Name